Sampel bertujuan dilakukan dengan cara mengambil subjek bukan berdasarkan atas strata,random/acak atau daerah tetapi berdasarkan atas adanya tujuan tertentu.
Suhaimi,Arikunto ,2002 P.117 (Revisi 2003)
in English
Sample aiming is done by taking the subject is not based on strata,random or region but based on the existence of a particular purpose.
Translate by. Ridha Voice Leader MusangPudak/Juny 2011
Selasa, 14 Juni 2011
The Test
The test is in the form of oral by giving several word to be pronouncing sounds.
Test is used to know the students ability pronounce English sound words.
Heaton .1973
Test is used to know the students ability pronounce English sound words.
Heaton .1973
Sabtu, 11 Juni 2011
SPEAKING IN ENGLISH
Posted By.Moderators MusangPudak
BACKGROUND
Speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols. Speaking is a crucial part of second language learning and teaching. However, today’s world requires that the goal of teaching speaking should improve students’ communicative skills because students can express themselves and learn how to use a language.
Nowadays, many teacher agree that students should learn to speak the second language by interacting to others. For this case, students should master several speaking components’, such as: comprehension, pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and fluency. In brief, English teacher should be creative in developing their teaching learning process to create good atmosphere, improve the students speaking skill, give attention to the speaking components’, and make the English lesson more exiting.
For this reason, the English teacher should apply appropriate method and technique of teaching speaking. The method used by the teacher is Communicative approach. In communicative approach, language is primarily a tool of communication. Thus, learning a language means learning to perform communicative speech acts with it (Brickerton.1996: 1).
In general, speech acts are acts of communication. To communicate is to express a certain attitude, and the type of speech act being performed corresponds to the type of attitude being expressed. For example, a statement expresses a belief, a request expresses a desire, and an apology expresses a regret. As an act of communication, a speech act succeeds if the audience identifies, in accordance with the speaker's intention, the attitude being expressed which realized in the language.
1
As a professional teachers in the language teaching, especially the teaching of English a foreign language, teachers mostly spend much of time on appropriate teaching methodologist for greater effectiveness in students acquisitions on English, designing and implementing materials, test, and practice Teachers are responsible to educate the students from little or no knowledge to sufficient English speaking environment.
The KTSP curriculum of teaching English takes emphasis of the curriculum that the students are able to communicate in English by mastering the whole skills. However, it is not easy to master all the skills; there must be one important skill that covers the whole skills. Based on the statement above speaking is the most important skill that should be mastered by students in order to communicate in English fluently.
In this case, the students must study hard to master it and the teacher should create a good atmosphere in the classroom. However, it is contrary to the real situation in class. Speaking activities do not work in class because many factors prevent students from speaking English with their friends. They are afraid of making mistakes, of being laughed at by his or her friends and of having lack of confidence in their ability.
Considering the problem, relating to speaking activities in class and helping students to improve their speaking skill is part of the teacher’s job. He or she is expected to have right teaching techniques to provide students with appropriate teaching materials and to create a positive classroom environment. Therefore, the students will have opportunity to use English among themselves. The teaching – learning process should not only happen between teacher and students but also between students and students.
Speaking is an activity used by someone to communicate with other.
It takes place very where and has become part of our daily activities.
2
When someone speaks, he or she interacts and uses the language to express his or her ideas, feeling and thought. He or she also shares information to other trough communication.
CHAPTER I
ENGLISH TEACHING AND LEARNING
EXPERIENCE
H A S D A R, S. P d.
A. Learning Experience
I started learning English when I was at the first grade of Junior High School in 1986. It was my first experience of learning English. There was not English subject at Elementary School that time. I studied in MTs Muhammadiyah Sinjai. I then continued my Senior High School to the Elementary School Religion Teacher Training, Pendidikan Guru Agama, PGA Negeri Watampone. After graduating from PGA, I continued my Study to English Department of Institute of Teacher Training and Education, IKIP Ujungpandang.
1. Learning English in Junior High School
Learning English in Junior High School was my first experience of
learning English. My secondary school was Madrasah Tsanawiyah, a Junior
3
High School which organized and authorized by Religion Ministry, apart from Educational Ministry. Although the curriculum is different from SMP curriculum but its English curriculum is adopted from SMP curriculum. In English subject, the teacher used textbook of SMP. I learned English once a week for 80 minutes each.
First time I joined English class was an unforgettable experience for me. I wondered why the teacher read the words he has just written on the blackboard in a strange ways. Fortunately, one of my friend, named Musyawir gave a bit explain about that. At that time my teacher of English taught me ‘Personal Pronoun’, and it became my first experience of learning English.
During my Junior High School, I was taught by single English teacher, named Pak Muh. Yusuf. I admire him very much. He handle all English classes from first grade to third grade. He taught us English with grammatical approach, as the popular approach that time. Besides that, he sometimes asked his students to memorize, he thought, important vocabulary to know.
Almost all the time of learning English during my secondary school was spent to learn grammar, specially tenses. We learned how to formulate a sentence using certain tenses. So that the use of certain rules of tenses was applied strictly. It seemed that learning speaking as other skills of language were not popular that time. By the way I enjoyed learning English during that time.
2. Learning English in Senior High School
After graduating from my secondary school, I continued my study to PGA Negeri Watampone. Here I was taught by a girl English teacher, named Ibu Sukinah. She had a good style in teaching English. She taught us English more communicatively than my previous experience in junior high school.
She introduced me the four skills in English language, though her style of teaching still took emphasis on translation method. Most of her materials were reading and the popular task was translating the reading passage into Bahasa Indonesia. My vocabulary became a bit developed during that time.
4
The teaching of speaking seemed to be ignored. But at least she sometimes asked her students to answer the reading question orally. There was not real effort to develop speaking skill.
3. Learning English at IKIP Ujungpandang.
My speaking skill begun to develop when I was studying at University. Here I got special subject named speaking subject. In this subject, we were “forced” to speak English. Even though “The Compulsion” to speak English during the speaking class had made me “shock” at the first semester. Fortunately, at the second semester I can adapt to the situation. And that is why I still could “survive” at English department until finishing my study there.
The teaching of speaking was very communicative. The lecturers gave us certain topic and we began to develop it in a small group and after that we made a presentation in front of the class. Sometimes the lecturers let us to choose our own topic to talk about during the speaking class.
A. Teaching Experiences
I started teaching English in 2000 at SMK Negeri 1 Enrekang. Teaching English at Vocational School has its own characteristics. It is different from Teaching English at other public school, such SMA. The Vocational School Curriculum is designed to support the students’ competence of certain professions, such as computer technician, electrician, secretary, accountant, entrepreneur, and so on.
Teaching Speaking, as other skills, is very important to the vocational school students. Later when they are at workplace, they are expected to be able to communicate in English. So that the teacher takes emphasis much on teaching speaking. In designing materials, specially to practice speaking, I usually try to adjust the materials with the students’ major. Take for example, when we are talking about text procedure, the materials should be:
1. Technical Support and networking, students will talk about “How to
install software or hardware”.
2. Audio Video, students will talk about “How to install electric fuse”;
3.Marketing, students will talk about “How to operate cash register
machine”
5
4. Office Administration, students will talk about “How to operate
facsimile machine”, and so on.
But all of the program studies have the same curriculum and syllable in vocational school. So that the variations of materials for each skill program should not have different based competence to achieve.
I usually use the PPP method of teaching speaking at SMK Negeri 1
Enrekang, Presentation, Practice, and Production.
6
Teaching Speaking Materials
I realized that my students are lack of vocabulary. So that I asked them to bring any dictionary in every English class. In speaking class, sometimes I asked them to speak in relation to their major.
Experience in Teaching Speaking
GIVING INSTRUCTION
Language :
Transitional makers/ signals
Imperative
Technique :
Presentation, Practice, and Production (PPP)
Materials :
I.
Presentation:
1. Show the students a picture.
7
Ask the students this questions:
•
Do you have an email account?
•
Have you ever sent an email?
•
Can you explain how to send an email?
1. Present the student how to use of transitional makers and haw to
make imperative.
Practice:
2. Divide the students into small groups of 3 or 4.
3. Share the following text to each group, ask them in group to discus the message.
First of all, log in to Yahoo home page. Click on the 'GeoCities' link in the
navigation pane to begin. Then, click the 'Sign Up Now' link. This will redirect you to the GeoCities start page, which will ask you a series of questions that Yahoo! needs to know before you can create your Website. Next, determine what you intend your Website for by pressing one of the buttons next to your choice. Click on each box that indicates how you heard about GeoCities.Ent e r the 'Verification Key,' which is the letters and numbers that appear in the displayed image.Click 'Submit' once you are done. After that, click the 'Build Website Now' button to create your site using Yahoo's Sitebuilder application. This program helps you create your Website even if you have no experience with coding or programming.Finally, click the 'Submit' button once you've finished making changes with Sitebuilder, and your Website will reflect the changes you've made
4. Ask the students to give instruction how to develop a blog in yahoo home page in their group.
5. Review the students presentation.
Production
7. Ask the studentsIn the group to take turn to give the instructions based on the situations
below.
8
•
You want to sell your cellular phone to your friend. You have to explain how to use each
feature on your cellular phone.
•
You want to introduce one of traditional foods to your friend who comes from another region.
You have to explain how to make that food.
•
Your friends’ notebook doesn’t work. You give him instructions how to reinstall operation
system in it.
Follow-Up
Make a last review for the students’ presentation.
This material is really impress the students from the Technical Support and Networking department. Almost all students understand to talk about computer, application, and networking system.
CHAP TER II
METHOD OF TEACHING SPEAKING AND INTEGRATED
SKILLS BASED ON BOOKS
Title
: Practical English Language Teaching: Speaking
Author
: Kathleen M. Bailey
Publisher : New York: McGraw-Hill ESL/ELT 2005
Pages
: Pp.vii + 199
9
ISBN
: ISBN 0-07-310310-1 (paper)
The book consists of five chapters:
(1) What is speaking?
(2) Speaking for beginning level learners,
(3) Speaking for intermediate level learners,
(4) Speaking for advanced level learners, and
(5) Key issues in teaching speaking.
Content is generally supported by current literature. Additionally, there are authentic sample dialogues to support and illustrate points. Each chapter begins with a Goals page that tells the reader what s/he should be able to do by the end of the chapter. Each chapter ends with suggestions for further reading and URLs of pertinent web sites. Within each chapter, there are Reflection boxes and Action boxes. Words that appear in bold letters in the text are compiled in a comprehensive glossary.
Chapter 1 offers an introduction to teaching and assessing speaking, along with basic terminology and definitions. It includes an overview of the evolution of methodologies for teaching speaking. In this section, the strong version of communicative language teaching (CLT), where attention is largely centered on meaning, is discussed. This version has become outmoded, though, as the value of other important elements, such as form or context (Bax, 2003), have gained currency. Current methodology calls for a more moderate form of CLT with combined attention to form and meaning (e.g., Nassaji, 2000).
Chapters 2, 3 and 4 address teaching speaking by level (beginner, intermediate, and advanced). Levels are identified per ACTFL (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages) guidelines. Syllabus design is used as the starting point in each chapter. Next are principles for teaching the language level in question, discussion of tasks and materials - with complete descriptions of many activities and their applications - guidelines on teaching pronunciation, and a section on assessing the particular language level.
Chapter 5 addresses a variety of common classroom situations, such as learners' use
of their L1, learners' reluctance to speak (or dealing with a dominant class speaker), different
10
learning styles, responses to oral errors, activities with large classes, activities with multi-
level classes, and technology's role in teaching speaking.
The author has intended the book for in-service as well as pre-service teachers and it is designed for use as a textbook in a teacher training course or as a reference for individual professional development. However, while the book is sound in terms of methodology, it is questionable how well the book succeeds in being a useful resource for all targeted readers and uses. For a novice teacher, the book has much to offer. The language is clear. There are step-by-step guidelines for developing teaching materials. As an example, something as straightforward as how to compile a picture file is explained. There are also detailed instructions for carrying out classroom activities. Basic concepts, such as "pair-work." and "group-work" and "simulation" , are elucidated.
Intonation and other features of pronunciation are addressed in various sections of the book. While the intent to cover this aspect of speaking is laudable, the presentation and content are weak for several reasons. First, the phonetic symbols used are not those of a commonly used phonetic alphabet. (The alphabet Bailey uses does not appear among six commonly used systems cited by Celce-Murcia et al., 1996, p. 371). A lesser-known phonetic alphabet will not have much practical application for teachers or learners. Second, in the explanation of vowel production, it is stated that the vowel chart is often "superimposed on a profile of a face, looking to the left" (p. 66). However, this book only mentions the illustration without actually including it. Such an illustration, which explicitly shows where in the mouth vowels are produced, is useful as it is common for learners to have difficulty just feeling where vowels are produced. Omitting this illustration is a shortcoming for a book otherwise so explicit.
Finally, including at the beginner level the teaching of segmental phonemes specifically is questionable for two reasons. First, at the beginning of each chapter, the author cites the ACTFL guidelines that characterize the language proficiency level. These guidelines for beginners (p. 30), however, do not specifically reference pronunciation, though the intermediate ones do. So, why is pronunciation introduced in the beginner chapter? Second, whether or not to teach segmental is often determined by the learners' L1 and age rather than by language proficiency level. For instance, a young adult learner may be able to produce
11
sounds accurately without having much vocabulary. Thus, introductory information on
pronunciation might have been better in a general chapter pertinent to all levels.
The only possibly novel approach to the material is in its organization, namely, by language proficiency level, but the rationale for this organization is unclear. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 identify principles for teaching speaking at the three levels (pp. 36, 96, 124). However, a look at these principles shows that they are broad enough to apply at all three levels, and it remains unclear how the author has determined these delineations. "Encourage learners to take reasonable risks in speaking English" falls under the advanced learner principles, but surely a case could be made for encouraging that advice at all levels. Similarly, the intermediate level principle "Personalize the speaking activities whenever possible" could apply as well to beginner and advanced learners.
Altogether, there is tremendous overlap in material. This is confusing for the reader. Why, for example, is self-evaluation only introduced at the advanced level (p. 154)? Particularly with adult learners, even at a beginner proficiency level, it is good practice to introduce self- evaluation (perhaps in a simpler format than the book illustrates) so that learners develop independence in their language learning from the start. Similarly, the explanations of different kinds of speaking tests (placement, diagnostic, progress, achievement) appear in the "beginner" chapter even though this information is relevant at all language proficiency levels. The same type of overlap is apparent with the description of activity types across levels. For instance, all three sections include picture-based activities. Bailey is perhaps attempting to show scaffolding, (i.e., how the same activity type can be applied at different levels by building on existing knowledge), but this is not explicit. It might have been clearer to organize the material by activity type and illustrate how one concept can be applied at
different levels.
It is equally unclear for which type of learner the activities are designed. To illustrate, one picture-based activity (p. 58) consists of describing photographs to learn lexical items for expressing size and shapes. It is intended for beginner learners, but we do not know the age of the learners and what learning goals they might have. The activity seems juvenile and devoid of an explicit communicative purpose (which should be fundamental at all levels). Although there may be a linguistic challenge, a cognitive challenge is lacking, and the activity
12
therefore seems an unlikely choice for adult learners. Similarly, a Total Physical Response (TPR) activity (p. 62) which calls for colored paper for mastering shapes, and presumably prepositions, may be appropriate at a beginner linguistic level, but it does not take into account any other characteristics about the learner.
Title
: Studying Speaking to Inform Second Language Learning
Second Language Acquisition
Author
: Diana Boxer and Andrew D. Cohen
Publisher : Cromwell Press Ltd. 2004
13
Cover
: Dark Blue Cover
Studying Speaking to Inform Second Language Learning offers the applied language research on spoken interaction in second and foreign languages and provides insights as to how findings from each of these studies may inform language pedagogy. The volume is organized to offer both empirical studies never before published, as well as overviews for each section that weave together the important issues dealt with in the different chapters.
An important contribution is the focus on methodological issues. The authors provide a set of pedagogical applications emerging from their studies whilst, in addition, the editor spell out the key insights that can be gleaned from those studies. As such, the volume offers an interviewing of perspectives rarely seen in applied linguistics texts.
The contributed chapters focused on discourse analysis from a wide variety of perspectives: speech acts, speech events, interactional analysis, pragmatics, and conversational analysis. The author includes both well- known scholars in the field as well as recent doctoral recipients making important new contributions.
This book talk much about how to handle a research on speaking.
Testing procedure is elaborated well.
14
Title
: Essential Speaking Skill
A Handbook for English Language Teacher
Author
: Joanna Baker and Heatcher Westrup
Publisher : Continuum inc. 2003
Cover
: Dark Blue Cover
Essential Speaking Skills is specially designed as a handbook for English language teacher. It consists of the definitive guide to teaching speaking to students of English as a second or additional language. There is much invaluable advice on teaching approaches and practical classroom ideas and learning activities, the handbook is specifically designed for teachers who teach large classes with very few resources. The clear explanations and the activities are suited to both new and experienced teachers of English, and can be used in junior and senior secondary school classrooms and for adult learners.
15
This handbook contains many practical activities for speaking lessons. It also includes advise on how plan and organized speaking lesson well. We begin with a look at the important of speaking lessons may differ, depending on where in the world students are learning.
In some classes, students maybe very reluctant to speak English. In section 3 there is a discussion about why students can be shy and the writer suggest some strategies which can be used to encourage students to speak in class.
In section 4, there is a useful framework for teaching English and for planning and structuring lessons. It is suggested how to incorporate speaking in each lesson, and give practical guidance and ideas on how to organize these lessons. It is also explain how to link speaking to the other language skills of listening, reading and writing.
One useful framework for organizing lesson is PPP, Presentation,
Practice, and Production model.
16
Section 5, 6, and 7 focus on classroom organization, how you can correct your students during speaking activities and what materials you and your students can use in speaking lessons.
The main part of the book, section 8 onwards, includes over 120 activities and variations which we have seen or which have been used by teachers all over the world.
Sections 8 and 9 include ideas for starting lessons and presenting new language through speaking. In section 10 and 11, we look at ways of using speaking to practice new vocabulary, grammar, or functional language, and practicing speaking with different degrees of guidance from the teacher. There are many suggestions for speaking activities in this section.
You may be required to use the texts in your course books as the material for your lessons. So, in section 12, the writer show how you can use speaking activities to improve students’ understanding and retention of the text.
Section 13 focuses on pronunciation, and includes many different ideas about ways to practice all the elements of this which a good English speaker needs.
Although examinations are often set by ministries and other educational institutes, teachers frequently have to set and mark tests for their own students. Section 14 includes some valuable ideas for setting, organizing and marking speaking tests.
17
Title
: Communicative Language Teaching Today
Author
: Jack C. Richards
Publisher : Cambridge University Press. 2006
Cover
: White Cover
On the first chapter of this book, It is explained that Communicative language teaching can be understood as a set of principles about the goals of language teaching, how learners learn a language, the kinds of classroom activities that best facilitate learning, and the roles of teachers and learners in the classroom. Let us examine each of these issues in turn.
Communicative competence includes the following aspects of
language knowledge:
1. Knowing how to use language for a range of different purposes
and functions
2. Knowing how to vary our use of language according to the setting and the participants (e.g., knowing when to use formal and informal speech or when to use language appropriately for written as opposed to spoken communication)
18
3. Knowing how to produce and understand different types of
texts (e.g., narratives, reports, interviews, conversations)
4. Knowing how to maintain communication despite having limitations in one’s language knowledge (e.g., through using different kinds of communication strategies)
The type of classroom activities proposed in CLT also implied new roles in the classroom for teachers and learners. Learners now had to participate in classroom activities that were based on a cooperative rather than individualistic approach to learning. Students had to become comfortable with listening to their peers in group work or pair work tasks, rather than relying on the teacher for a model. They were expected to take on a greater degree of responsibility for their own learning. And teachers now had to assume the role of facilitator and monitor. Rather than being a model for correct speech and writing and one with the primary responsibility of making students produce plenty of error-free sentences, the teacher had to develop a different view of learners’ errors and of her/his own role in facilitating language learning.
Since its inception in the 1970s, communicative language teaching has passed through a number of different phases. In its first phase, a primary concern was the need to develop a syllabus and teaching approach that was compatible with early conceptions of communicative competence. This led to proposals for the organization of syllabuses in terms of functions and notions rather than grammatical structures. Later the focus shifted to procedures for identifying learners’ communicative needs and this resulted in proposals to make needs analysis an essential component of communicative methodology. At the same time, methodologists focused on the kinds of classroom activities that could be used to implement a communicative approach, such as group work, task work, and information-gap activities.
19
Today CLT can be seen as describing a set of core principles about language learning and teaching, as summarized above, assumptions which can be applied in different ways and which address different aspects of the processes of teaching and learning.
Some focus centrally on the input to the learning process. Thus content-based teaching stresses that the content or subject matter of teaching drives the whole language learning process. Some teaching proposals focus more directly on instructional processes. Task-based instruction for example, advocates the use of specially designed instructional tasks as the basis of learning. Others, such as competency- based instruction and text-based teaching, focus on the outcomes of learning and use outcomes or products as the starting point in planning teaching. Today CLT continues in its classic form as seen in the huge range of course books and other teaching resources that cite CLT as the source of their methodology. In addition, it has influenced many other language teaching approaches that subscribe to a similar philosophy of language teaching.
This book much present about the Contextual Language Teaching. The writer takes much emphasis on PPP techniques, Presentation, Practice, and Production.
Presentation: The new grammar structure is presented, often by means of a conversation or short text. The teacher explains the new structure and checks students’ comprehension of it.
Practice: Students practice using the new structure in a controlled
context, through drills or substitution exercises.
Production: Students practice using the new structure in different contexts, often using their own content or information, in order to develop fluency with the new pattern.
20
Title
: Powerful English Speaking
Author
: A. J. Hoge
Publisher : Ebook on The Effortless English Online 2009
Cover
: Red Black Cover
He is the creator of the Effortless English Teaching System and he is the Founder and Director of The Effortless English Club- one of the most popular English learning systems in the world. His audio lessons are best-
21
sellers in over 25 countries and his radio podcast has over one million
listeners worldwide.
A.J. Hoge, the author of this book proposes an excellent method of learning English speaking as a foreign language. The method is well known as ‘The Effortless English Method’. The Effortless English system consists of three primary areas of mastery: Body, Mind, & Method. It is very simple method. By mastering specific techniques in each area, you will powerfully improve your English speaking ability. Your speech will become faster and you will begin to speak English automatically.
The Effortless English system could be visualized as follows:
When we talk about “Body” in Effortless English, we are mostly
talking about emotion. Emotion is energy. Emotion is what gives us the
energy and the motivation to study every day. Emotion gives us the
confidence to speak. Positive emotion helps us to learn faster, while
negative emotions slow our learning. To learn very quickly, we must learn
to master our emotions-- and that requires mastery of our body.
In the Effortless English System, “Mind” means beliefs and focus. Our beliefs about learning, education, and our own abilities strongly influences our learning ability. Powerful beliefs lead to powerful learning, while weak beliefs lead to slow learning. Unfortunately, in school most of us learned very weak beliefs. Therefore, most English students lack confidence. They feel nervous about English. They think they are “not
22
good at English”. They believe that English speaking is very difficult. None
of these beliefs are true.
Finally, to improve English speaking quickly students must master the Effortless English “Method”. “Method” refers to the specific teaching and learning techniques that we use in the system. In the method section, you learn exactly how to study and exactly what kinds of lessons to use. Method is very important, but students absolutely must first master Body & Mind in order to speak English easily. Remember, each part of the Effortless English System is vital-- you must master all three areas in order to master English speaking.
Title
: Speak English Fluently
Author
: Dr. Mahendra Saraswat
Publisher : New Delhi.UPKAR PRAKASHAN 2002
23
Cover
: Blue, Yellow Cover
The book consists of 14 chapters:
1. Acquire the Power of Pronunciation Skill
a) Always remember that the practice material should be read ALOUD and that too again and again to train your Tongue, your Lips, your Throat and other organs of speech.
b) It is the Spoken language that comes first, and Written
language only afterwards.
c) The Spoken part of language is not the same as the Written
part. Don’t try to speak in written style of language.
d) Speak in a Natural Way, i.e., to speak in Word-groups. Learning and speaking in words only can’t help you to gain speech fluency. UTTER each word-group as a single word-unit or you can say in a single IDEA UNIT. Natural talk comes out in idea– units only, i.e., the group of words.
e) You are not required to consciously stop to think about how to
string the words together. Speak out spontaneously.
1. Let Yourself Grasp the Pompous Shortened Forms
✔To avoid the Fear of Grammatical Mistakes, don’t try to use the
Long Forms of starters at this stage.
✔Ensure maximum use of Shortened Forms like ‘I’ ll’ (Ail) for
both ‘I shall’ and ‘I will’; and
✔‘You’d’ (Yood) for both ‘You had’ and ‘You would’ and so on.
1. Bank Upon the Proficient Vocabulary
✔Build up your own Vocabulary Bank.
24
✔Have better acquaintance with words, i.e. Mono–syllabic
words, and Poly–syllabic words. Mono–syllabic words contain only one syllable. On the other hand, Poly–syllabic words contain more than one syllable.
✔Mono–syllabic words generally need not any stress or extra
effort to speak them out, while Poly–syllabic words require
stress as the situation demands.
✔Read out the given Mono–syllabic, and Poly–syllabic words
ALOUD.
✔Practice Material requires frequent and several readings
ALOUD.
1. Train Your Tongue
✔Grasp the Principles of Description, i.e. Important
Combinations of Speech.
✔Pay due attention towards ‘Things to Remember’.
✔Understand the Action words and their three forms carefully.
✔There is no need to learn any text given here by heart
including Practice Material. Read it aloud not once, but several
times to let your organs of speech to acquire the speech habit.
1. Befriend with Speech Fluency Techniques
✔Grasp the idea of fundamental frames or structure style.
✔Understand the Parts of Speech, viz. Naming Part, Descriptive
Part, and Action Part.
✔Read the list of ‘Naming Frames’ and ‘Action Frames’ ALOUD.
✔Pick a Naming frame and conjugate it with different Action
frames ; and generate numerous idea-units.
25
✔Remember, substitution, i.e. conjugation of different Naming
Frames with different Action frames in various style is the
secret of speech generation.
1. Let Down Your Fluency Obstacles
✔Understand carefully all the four types of word–junctions, i.e.,
(a) Consonant–consonant junctions, (b) Consonant–vowel junctions, (c) Vowel–vowel junctions, and (d) Vowel-consonant junctions, and grasp their style of flowing into each other.
✔Master the gliding over at the word–junctions.
✔Take special care of the text given under heading ‘Things to
remember’.
✔Read the practice material given in the chapter ALOUD several
time.
1. Divide and Rule Your Speech
✔Divide your speech in chunks, wherever it is necessary.
✔A chunk is a piece of specific information.
✔A standard chunk shouldn’t contain more than eight words.
✔Grasp the Seven Tips given in the chapter for effective division
of utter able structure of word–group.
✔Try to speak out a standard chunk up to eight words within
three seconds.
1. Realize the Beauty of Pauses
✔Pauses are the part and parcel of spoken part of English.
✔Pauses are the best way to tackle your hesitation during the
conversation, and provide required opportunities to think over
26
subject–matter,
selection
of
words
or
word–groups,
construction, correction and editing of structure.
✔Pauses, particularly junction pauses, facilitate to relieve your
speech–organs from undue pressure thereon, and immune
your speech from faltering.
✔Hesitation is an essential phenomena of spoken English, and
no one can absolutely avoid it.
1. Speak in Rhythmic Fluency
✔Rhythm of Fluency depends upon the Rhythtech, i.e., a
predetermined order, and distinct up and down movements in
your speech.
✔Rhythtech works primarily with the help of some spare parts
like syllables—the word or the part of word uttered by a single
effort.
✔Rhythtech needs the proper arrangement of stressed and
unstressed syllables as well as the amount of time period
invested in utterance thereof.
✔The Rhythm–flow of speech is virtually a well constructed
chain of feet.
1. Control Your Speech Delivery
✔Speech initiators control your speech delivery efficiently.
✔Speech initiators are the group of words that are uttered at
the beginning of idea-units.
✔Speech initiators help you to develop effective Fluency
Nucleus.
1. Tag Your Speech with Short Responses
✔Short Response is a right source of complete conveyance of
your message, if it is applied as per the demand of context.
27
✔In comparison to other Indian languages, English has a variety
of Tags or Tag-questions, in contrasts to popular belief that the
Tags may be only like “isn’t it ?” or “is it ?”.
1. Secret of Successful Spontaneous Speech
✔Spontaneous speech making is an impromptu action, i.e.,
speech without planning, preparation and organization in advance, thus having uniqueness of makeshift improvisation— composition and speech of your idea-units simultaneously.
✔Spontaneous speech confers you the freedom of arranging
your speech in various styles like (a) Topic–comment order, (b)
Comment–topic order, (c) Repetition of References, etc.
✔It’s the spontaneous speech that provides you better chances
for (a) Self–correction, (b) Fronting, (c) Appendages, (d) Addition of Afterthoughts, (e) Use of fragments, etc., thus, you’ve the appreciable freedom of speech.
✔Comment clauses play the commendable role in composition
as well as correction in spontaneous speech.
✔The Hallmark of spoken English is imprecision and vagueness.
1. Beautify Your Speech with Drops
✔Though adding something makes your English effective, but
you can beautify your spoken English even by some drops too.
✔I-We-You-They-He-She-It; Am-Is-Are-Was-Were; Has-Have Had;
Shall-Will; A-An-The, and There, can be the extra bulge in your spoken English which requires to be shredded. It is the beauty of English that provides an opportunity to do so.
1. The Final Touch
✔Besides so many things, the knack of conversation, i.e.,
framing up of questions, plays an important role to gain
speech-fluency.
28
BACKGROUND
Speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols. Speaking is a crucial part of second language learning and teaching. However, today’s world requires that the goal of teaching speaking should improve students’ communicative skills because students can express themselves and learn how to use a language.
Nowadays, many teacher agree that students should learn to speak the second language by interacting to others. For this case, students should master several speaking components’, such as: comprehension, pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and fluency. In brief, English teacher should be creative in developing their teaching learning process to create good atmosphere, improve the students speaking skill, give attention to the speaking components’, and make the English lesson more exiting.
For this reason, the English teacher should apply appropriate method and technique of teaching speaking. The method used by the teacher is Communicative approach. In communicative approach, language is primarily a tool of communication. Thus, learning a language means learning to perform communicative speech acts with it (Brickerton.1996: 1).
In general, speech acts are acts of communication. To communicate is to express a certain attitude, and the type of speech act being performed corresponds to the type of attitude being expressed. For example, a statement expresses a belief, a request expresses a desire, and an apology expresses a regret. As an act of communication, a speech act succeeds if the audience identifies, in accordance with the speaker's intention, the attitude being expressed which realized in the language.
1
As a professional teachers in the language teaching, especially the teaching of English a foreign language, teachers mostly spend much of time on appropriate teaching methodologist for greater effectiveness in students acquisitions on English, designing and implementing materials, test, and practice Teachers are responsible to educate the students from little or no knowledge to sufficient English speaking environment.
The KTSP curriculum of teaching English takes emphasis of the curriculum that the students are able to communicate in English by mastering the whole skills. However, it is not easy to master all the skills; there must be one important skill that covers the whole skills. Based on the statement above speaking is the most important skill that should be mastered by students in order to communicate in English fluently.
In this case, the students must study hard to master it and the teacher should create a good atmosphere in the classroom. However, it is contrary to the real situation in class. Speaking activities do not work in class because many factors prevent students from speaking English with their friends. They are afraid of making mistakes, of being laughed at by his or her friends and of having lack of confidence in their ability.
Considering the problem, relating to speaking activities in class and helping students to improve their speaking skill is part of the teacher’s job. He or she is expected to have right teaching techniques to provide students with appropriate teaching materials and to create a positive classroom environment. Therefore, the students will have opportunity to use English among themselves. The teaching – learning process should not only happen between teacher and students but also between students and students.
Speaking is an activity used by someone to communicate with other.
It takes place very where and has become part of our daily activities.
2
When someone speaks, he or she interacts and uses the language to express his or her ideas, feeling and thought. He or she also shares information to other trough communication.
CHAPTER I
ENGLISH TEACHING AND LEARNING
EXPERIENCE
H A S D A R, S. P d.
A. Learning Experience
I started learning English when I was at the first grade of Junior High School in 1986. It was my first experience of learning English. There was not English subject at Elementary School that time. I studied in MTs Muhammadiyah Sinjai. I then continued my Senior High School to the Elementary School Religion Teacher Training, Pendidikan Guru Agama, PGA Negeri Watampone. After graduating from PGA, I continued my Study to English Department of Institute of Teacher Training and Education, IKIP Ujungpandang.
1. Learning English in Junior High School
Learning English in Junior High School was my first experience of
learning English. My secondary school was Madrasah Tsanawiyah, a Junior
3
High School which organized and authorized by Religion Ministry, apart from Educational Ministry. Although the curriculum is different from SMP curriculum but its English curriculum is adopted from SMP curriculum. In English subject, the teacher used textbook of SMP. I learned English once a week for 80 minutes each.
First time I joined English class was an unforgettable experience for me. I wondered why the teacher read the words he has just written on the blackboard in a strange ways. Fortunately, one of my friend, named Musyawir gave a bit explain about that. At that time my teacher of English taught me ‘Personal Pronoun’, and it became my first experience of learning English.
During my Junior High School, I was taught by single English teacher, named Pak Muh. Yusuf. I admire him very much. He handle all English classes from first grade to third grade. He taught us English with grammatical approach, as the popular approach that time. Besides that, he sometimes asked his students to memorize, he thought, important vocabulary to know.
Almost all the time of learning English during my secondary school was spent to learn grammar, specially tenses. We learned how to formulate a sentence using certain tenses. So that the use of certain rules of tenses was applied strictly. It seemed that learning speaking as other skills of language were not popular that time. By the way I enjoyed learning English during that time.
2. Learning English in Senior High School
After graduating from my secondary school, I continued my study to PGA Negeri Watampone. Here I was taught by a girl English teacher, named Ibu Sukinah. She had a good style in teaching English. She taught us English more communicatively than my previous experience in junior high school.
She introduced me the four skills in English language, though her style of teaching still took emphasis on translation method. Most of her materials were reading and the popular task was translating the reading passage into Bahasa Indonesia. My vocabulary became a bit developed during that time.
4
The teaching of speaking seemed to be ignored. But at least she sometimes asked her students to answer the reading question orally. There was not real effort to develop speaking skill.
3. Learning English at IKIP Ujungpandang.
My speaking skill begun to develop when I was studying at University. Here I got special subject named speaking subject. In this subject, we were “forced” to speak English. Even though “The Compulsion” to speak English during the speaking class had made me “shock” at the first semester. Fortunately, at the second semester I can adapt to the situation. And that is why I still could “survive” at English department until finishing my study there.
The teaching of speaking was very communicative. The lecturers gave us certain topic and we began to develop it in a small group and after that we made a presentation in front of the class. Sometimes the lecturers let us to choose our own topic to talk about during the speaking class.
A. Teaching Experiences
I started teaching English in 2000 at SMK Negeri 1 Enrekang. Teaching English at Vocational School has its own characteristics. It is different from Teaching English at other public school, such SMA. The Vocational School Curriculum is designed to support the students’ competence of certain professions, such as computer technician, electrician, secretary, accountant, entrepreneur, and so on.
Teaching Speaking, as other skills, is very important to the vocational school students. Later when they are at workplace, they are expected to be able to communicate in English. So that the teacher takes emphasis much on teaching speaking. In designing materials, specially to practice speaking, I usually try to adjust the materials with the students’ major. Take for example, when we are talking about text procedure, the materials should be:
1. Technical Support and networking, students will talk about “How to
install software or hardware”.
2. Audio Video, students will talk about “How to install electric fuse”;
3.Marketing, students will talk about “How to operate cash register
machine”
5
4. Office Administration, students will talk about “How to operate
facsimile machine”, and so on.
But all of the program studies have the same curriculum and syllable in vocational school. So that the variations of materials for each skill program should not have different based competence to achieve.
I usually use the PPP method of teaching speaking at SMK Negeri 1
Enrekang, Presentation, Practice, and Production.
6
Teaching Speaking Materials
I realized that my students are lack of vocabulary. So that I asked them to bring any dictionary in every English class. In speaking class, sometimes I asked them to speak in relation to their major.
Experience in Teaching Speaking
GIVING INSTRUCTION
Language :
Transitional makers/ signals
Imperative
Technique :
Presentation, Practice, and Production (PPP)
Materials :
I.
Presentation:
1. Show the students a picture.
7
Ask the students this questions:
•
Do you have an email account?
•
Have you ever sent an email?
•
Can you explain how to send an email?
1. Present the student how to use of transitional makers and haw to
make imperative.
Practice:
2. Divide the students into small groups of 3 or 4.
3. Share the following text to each group, ask them in group to discus the message.
First of all, log in to Yahoo home page. Click on the 'GeoCities' link in the
navigation pane to begin. Then, click the 'Sign Up Now' link. This will redirect you to the GeoCities start page, which will ask you a series of questions that Yahoo! needs to know before you can create your Website. Next, determine what you intend your Website for by pressing one of the buttons next to your choice. Click on each box that indicates how you heard about GeoCities.Ent e r the 'Verification Key,' which is the letters and numbers that appear in the displayed image.Click 'Submit' once you are done. After that, click the 'Build Website Now' button to create your site using Yahoo's Sitebuilder application. This program helps you create your Website even if you have no experience with coding or programming.Finally, click the 'Submit' button once you've finished making changes with Sitebuilder, and your Website will reflect the changes you've made
4. Ask the students to give instruction how to develop a blog in yahoo home page in their group.
5. Review the students presentation.
Production
7. Ask the studentsIn the group to take turn to give the instructions based on the situations
below.
8
•
You want to sell your cellular phone to your friend. You have to explain how to use each
feature on your cellular phone.
•
You want to introduce one of traditional foods to your friend who comes from another region.
You have to explain how to make that food.
•
Your friends’ notebook doesn’t work. You give him instructions how to reinstall operation
system in it.
Follow-Up
Make a last review for the students’ presentation.
This material is really impress the students from the Technical Support and Networking department. Almost all students understand to talk about computer, application, and networking system.
CHAP TER II
METHOD OF TEACHING SPEAKING AND INTEGRATED
SKILLS BASED ON BOOKS
Title
: Practical English Language Teaching: Speaking
Author
: Kathleen M. Bailey
Publisher : New York: McGraw-Hill ESL/ELT 2005
Pages
: Pp.vii + 199
9
ISBN
: ISBN 0-07-310310-1 (paper)
The book consists of five chapters:
(1) What is speaking?
(2) Speaking for beginning level learners,
(3) Speaking for intermediate level learners,
(4) Speaking for advanced level learners, and
(5) Key issues in teaching speaking.
Content is generally supported by current literature. Additionally, there are authentic sample dialogues to support and illustrate points. Each chapter begins with a Goals page that tells the reader what s/he should be able to do by the end of the chapter. Each chapter ends with suggestions for further reading and URLs of pertinent web sites. Within each chapter, there are Reflection boxes and Action boxes. Words that appear in bold letters in the text are compiled in a comprehensive glossary.
Chapter 1 offers an introduction to teaching and assessing speaking, along with basic terminology and definitions. It includes an overview of the evolution of methodologies for teaching speaking. In this section, the strong version of communicative language teaching (CLT), where attention is largely centered on meaning, is discussed. This version has become outmoded, though, as the value of other important elements, such as form or context (Bax, 2003), have gained currency. Current methodology calls for a more moderate form of CLT with combined attention to form and meaning (e.g., Nassaji, 2000).
Chapters 2, 3 and 4 address teaching speaking by level (beginner, intermediate, and advanced). Levels are identified per ACTFL (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages) guidelines. Syllabus design is used as the starting point in each chapter. Next are principles for teaching the language level in question, discussion of tasks and materials - with complete descriptions of many activities and their applications - guidelines on teaching pronunciation, and a section on assessing the particular language level.
Chapter 5 addresses a variety of common classroom situations, such as learners' use
of their L1, learners' reluctance to speak (or dealing with a dominant class speaker), different
10
learning styles, responses to oral errors, activities with large classes, activities with multi-
level classes, and technology's role in teaching speaking.
The author has intended the book for in-service as well as pre-service teachers and it is designed for use as a textbook in a teacher training course or as a reference for individual professional development. However, while the book is sound in terms of methodology, it is questionable how well the book succeeds in being a useful resource for all targeted readers and uses. For a novice teacher, the book has much to offer. The language is clear. There are step-by-step guidelines for developing teaching materials. As an example, something as straightforward as how to compile a picture file is explained. There are also detailed instructions for carrying out classroom activities. Basic concepts, such as "pair-work." and "group-work" and "simulation" , are elucidated.
Intonation and other features of pronunciation are addressed in various sections of the book. While the intent to cover this aspect of speaking is laudable, the presentation and content are weak for several reasons. First, the phonetic symbols used are not those of a commonly used phonetic alphabet. (The alphabet Bailey uses does not appear among six commonly used systems cited by Celce-Murcia et al., 1996, p. 371). A lesser-known phonetic alphabet will not have much practical application for teachers or learners. Second, in the explanation of vowel production, it is stated that the vowel chart is often "superimposed on a profile of a face, looking to the left" (p. 66). However, this book only mentions the illustration without actually including it. Such an illustration, which explicitly shows where in the mouth vowels are produced, is useful as it is common for learners to have difficulty just feeling where vowels are produced. Omitting this illustration is a shortcoming for a book otherwise so explicit.
Finally, including at the beginner level the teaching of segmental phonemes specifically is questionable for two reasons. First, at the beginning of each chapter, the author cites the ACTFL guidelines that characterize the language proficiency level. These guidelines for beginners (p. 30), however, do not specifically reference pronunciation, though the intermediate ones do. So, why is pronunciation introduced in the beginner chapter? Second, whether or not to teach segmental is often determined by the learners' L1 and age rather than by language proficiency level. For instance, a young adult learner may be able to produce
11
sounds accurately without having much vocabulary. Thus, introductory information on
pronunciation might have been better in a general chapter pertinent to all levels.
The only possibly novel approach to the material is in its organization, namely, by language proficiency level, but the rationale for this organization is unclear. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 identify principles for teaching speaking at the three levels (pp. 36, 96, 124). However, a look at these principles shows that they are broad enough to apply at all three levels, and it remains unclear how the author has determined these delineations. "Encourage learners to take reasonable risks in speaking English" falls under the advanced learner principles, but surely a case could be made for encouraging that advice at all levels. Similarly, the intermediate level principle "Personalize the speaking activities whenever possible" could apply as well to beginner and advanced learners.
Altogether, there is tremendous overlap in material. This is confusing for the reader. Why, for example, is self-evaluation only introduced at the advanced level (p. 154)? Particularly with adult learners, even at a beginner proficiency level, it is good practice to introduce self- evaluation (perhaps in a simpler format than the book illustrates) so that learners develop independence in their language learning from the start. Similarly, the explanations of different kinds of speaking tests (placement, diagnostic, progress, achievement) appear in the "beginner" chapter even though this information is relevant at all language proficiency levels. The same type of overlap is apparent with the description of activity types across levels. For instance, all three sections include picture-based activities. Bailey is perhaps attempting to show scaffolding, (i.e., how the same activity type can be applied at different levels by building on existing knowledge), but this is not explicit. It might have been clearer to organize the material by activity type and illustrate how one concept can be applied at
different levels.
It is equally unclear for which type of learner the activities are designed. To illustrate, one picture-based activity (p. 58) consists of describing photographs to learn lexical items for expressing size and shapes. It is intended for beginner learners, but we do not know the age of the learners and what learning goals they might have. The activity seems juvenile and devoid of an explicit communicative purpose (which should be fundamental at all levels). Although there may be a linguistic challenge, a cognitive challenge is lacking, and the activity
12
therefore seems an unlikely choice for adult learners. Similarly, a Total Physical Response (TPR) activity (p. 62) which calls for colored paper for mastering shapes, and presumably prepositions, may be appropriate at a beginner linguistic level, but it does not take into account any other characteristics about the learner.
Title
: Studying Speaking to Inform Second Language Learning
Second Language Acquisition
Author
: Diana Boxer and Andrew D. Cohen
Publisher : Cromwell Press Ltd. 2004
13
Cover
: Dark Blue Cover
Studying Speaking to Inform Second Language Learning offers the applied language research on spoken interaction in second and foreign languages and provides insights as to how findings from each of these studies may inform language pedagogy. The volume is organized to offer both empirical studies never before published, as well as overviews for each section that weave together the important issues dealt with in the different chapters.
An important contribution is the focus on methodological issues. The authors provide a set of pedagogical applications emerging from their studies whilst, in addition, the editor spell out the key insights that can be gleaned from those studies. As such, the volume offers an interviewing of perspectives rarely seen in applied linguistics texts.
The contributed chapters focused on discourse analysis from a wide variety of perspectives: speech acts, speech events, interactional analysis, pragmatics, and conversational analysis. The author includes both well- known scholars in the field as well as recent doctoral recipients making important new contributions.
This book talk much about how to handle a research on speaking.
Testing procedure is elaborated well.
14
Title
: Essential Speaking Skill
A Handbook for English Language Teacher
Author
: Joanna Baker and Heatcher Westrup
Publisher : Continuum inc. 2003
Cover
: Dark Blue Cover
Essential Speaking Skills is specially designed as a handbook for English language teacher. It consists of the definitive guide to teaching speaking to students of English as a second or additional language. There is much invaluable advice on teaching approaches and practical classroom ideas and learning activities, the handbook is specifically designed for teachers who teach large classes with very few resources. The clear explanations and the activities are suited to both new and experienced teachers of English, and can be used in junior and senior secondary school classrooms and for adult learners.
15
This handbook contains many practical activities for speaking lessons. It also includes advise on how plan and organized speaking lesson well. We begin with a look at the important of speaking lessons may differ, depending on where in the world students are learning.
In some classes, students maybe very reluctant to speak English. In section 3 there is a discussion about why students can be shy and the writer suggest some strategies which can be used to encourage students to speak in class.
In section 4, there is a useful framework for teaching English and for planning and structuring lessons. It is suggested how to incorporate speaking in each lesson, and give practical guidance and ideas on how to organize these lessons. It is also explain how to link speaking to the other language skills of listening, reading and writing.
One useful framework for organizing lesson is PPP, Presentation,
Practice, and Production model.
16
Section 5, 6, and 7 focus on classroom organization, how you can correct your students during speaking activities and what materials you and your students can use in speaking lessons.
The main part of the book, section 8 onwards, includes over 120 activities and variations which we have seen or which have been used by teachers all over the world.
Sections 8 and 9 include ideas for starting lessons and presenting new language through speaking. In section 10 and 11, we look at ways of using speaking to practice new vocabulary, grammar, or functional language, and practicing speaking with different degrees of guidance from the teacher. There are many suggestions for speaking activities in this section.
You may be required to use the texts in your course books as the material for your lessons. So, in section 12, the writer show how you can use speaking activities to improve students’ understanding and retention of the text.
Section 13 focuses on pronunciation, and includes many different ideas about ways to practice all the elements of this which a good English speaker needs.
Although examinations are often set by ministries and other educational institutes, teachers frequently have to set and mark tests for their own students. Section 14 includes some valuable ideas for setting, organizing and marking speaking tests.
17
Title
: Communicative Language Teaching Today
Author
: Jack C. Richards
Publisher : Cambridge University Press. 2006
Cover
: White Cover
On the first chapter of this book, It is explained that Communicative language teaching can be understood as a set of principles about the goals of language teaching, how learners learn a language, the kinds of classroom activities that best facilitate learning, and the roles of teachers and learners in the classroom. Let us examine each of these issues in turn.
Communicative competence includes the following aspects of
language knowledge:
1. Knowing how to use language for a range of different purposes
and functions
2. Knowing how to vary our use of language according to the setting and the participants (e.g., knowing when to use formal and informal speech or when to use language appropriately for written as opposed to spoken communication)
18
3. Knowing how to produce and understand different types of
texts (e.g., narratives, reports, interviews, conversations)
4. Knowing how to maintain communication despite having limitations in one’s language knowledge (e.g., through using different kinds of communication strategies)
The type of classroom activities proposed in CLT also implied new roles in the classroom for teachers and learners. Learners now had to participate in classroom activities that were based on a cooperative rather than individualistic approach to learning. Students had to become comfortable with listening to their peers in group work or pair work tasks, rather than relying on the teacher for a model. They were expected to take on a greater degree of responsibility for their own learning. And teachers now had to assume the role of facilitator and monitor. Rather than being a model for correct speech and writing and one with the primary responsibility of making students produce plenty of error-free sentences, the teacher had to develop a different view of learners’ errors and of her/his own role in facilitating language learning.
Since its inception in the 1970s, communicative language teaching has passed through a number of different phases. In its first phase, a primary concern was the need to develop a syllabus and teaching approach that was compatible with early conceptions of communicative competence. This led to proposals for the organization of syllabuses in terms of functions and notions rather than grammatical structures. Later the focus shifted to procedures for identifying learners’ communicative needs and this resulted in proposals to make needs analysis an essential component of communicative methodology. At the same time, methodologists focused on the kinds of classroom activities that could be used to implement a communicative approach, such as group work, task work, and information-gap activities.
19
Today CLT can be seen as describing a set of core principles about language learning and teaching, as summarized above, assumptions which can be applied in different ways and which address different aspects of the processes of teaching and learning.
Some focus centrally on the input to the learning process. Thus content-based teaching stresses that the content or subject matter of teaching drives the whole language learning process. Some teaching proposals focus more directly on instructional processes. Task-based instruction for example, advocates the use of specially designed instructional tasks as the basis of learning. Others, such as competency- based instruction and text-based teaching, focus on the outcomes of learning and use outcomes or products as the starting point in planning teaching. Today CLT continues in its classic form as seen in the huge range of course books and other teaching resources that cite CLT as the source of their methodology. In addition, it has influenced many other language teaching approaches that subscribe to a similar philosophy of language teaching.
This book much present about the Contextual Language Teaching. The writer takes much emphasis on PPP techniques, Presentation, Practice, and Production.
Presentation: The new grammar structure is presented, often by means of a conversation or short text. The teacher explains the new structure and checks students’ comprehension of it.
Practice: Students practice using the new structure in a controlled
context, through drills or substitution exercises.
Production: Students practice using the new structure in different contexts, often using their own content or information, in order to develop fluency with the new pattern.
20
Title
: Powerful English Speaking
Author
: A. J. Hoge
Publisher : Ebook on The Effortless English Online 2009
Cover
: Red Black Cover
He is the creator of the Effortless English Teaching System and he is the Founder and Director of The Effortless English Club- one of the most popular English learning systems in the world. His audio lessons are best-
21
sellers in over 25 countries and his radio podcast has over one million
listeners worldwide.
A.J. Hoge, the author of this book proposes an excellent method of learning English speaking as a foreign language. The method is well known as ‘The Effortless English Method’. The Effortless English system consists of three primary areas of mastery: Body, Mind, & Method. It is very simple method. By mastering specific techniques in each area, you will powerfully improve your English speaking ability. Your speech will become faster and you will begin to speak English automatically.
The Effortless English system could be visualized as follows:
When we talk about “Body” in Effortless English, we are mostly
talking about emotion. Emotion is energy. Emotion is what gives us the
energy and the motivation to study every day. Emotion gives us the
confidence to speak. Positive emotion helps us to learn faster, while
negative emotions slow our learning. To learn very quickly, we must learn
to master our emotions-- and that requires mastery of our body.
In the Effortless English System, “Mind” means beliefs and focus. Our beliefs about learning, education, and our own abilities strongly influences our learning ability. Powerful beliefs lead to powerful learning, while weak beliefs lead to slow learning. Unfortunately, in school most of us learned very weak beliefs. Therefore, most English students lack confidence. They feel nervous about English. They think they are “not
22
good at English”. They believe that English speaking is very difficult. None
of these beliefs are true.
Finally, to improve English speaking quickly students must master the Effortless English “Method”. “Method” refers to the specific teaching and learning techniques that we use in the system. In the method section, you learn exactly how to study and exactly what kinds of lessons to use. Method is very important, but students absolutely must first master Body & Mind in order to speak English easily. Remember, each part of the Effortless English System is vital-- you must master all three areas in order to master English speaking.
Title
: Speak English Fluently
Author
: Dr. Mahendra Saraswat
Publisher : New Delhi.UPKAR PRAKASHAN 2002
23
Cover
: Blue, Yellow Cover
The book consists of 14 chapters:
1. Acquire the Power of Pronunciation Skill
a) Always remember that the practice material should be read ALOUD and that too again and again to train your Tongue, your Lips, your Throat and other organs of speech.
b) It is the Spoken language that comes first, and Written
language only afterwards.
c) The Spoken part of language is not the same as the Written
part. Don’t try to speak in written style of language.
d) Speak in a Natural Way, i.e., to speak in Word-groups. Learning and speaking in words only can’t help you to gain speech fluency. UTTER each word-group as a single word-unit or you can say in a single IDEA UNIT. Natural talk comes out in idea– units only, i.e., the group of words.
e) You are not required to consciously stop to think about how to
string the words together. Speak out spontaneously.
1. Let Yourself Grasp the Pompous Shortened Forms
✔To avoid the Fear of Grammatical Mistakes, don’t try to use the
Long Forms of starters at this stage.
✔Ensure maximum use of Shortened Forms like ‘I’ ll’ (Ail) for
both ‘I shall’ and ‘I will’; and
✔‘You’d’ (Yood) for both ‘You had’ and ‘You would’ and so on.
1. Bank Upon the Proficient Vocabulary
✔Build up your own Vocabulary Bank.
24
✔Have better acquaintance with words, i.e. Mono–syllabic
words, and Poly–syllabic words. Mono–syllabic words contain only one syllable. On the other hand, Poly–syllabic words contain more than one syllable.
✔Mono–syllabic words generally need not any stress or extra
effort to speak them out, while Poly–syllabic words require
stress as the situation demands.
✔Read out the given Mono–syllabic, and Poly–syllabic words
ALOUD.
✔Practice Material requires frequent and several readings
ALOUD.
1. Train Your Tongue
✔Grasp the Principles of Description, i.e. Important
Combinations of Speech.
✔Pay due attention towards ‘Things to Remember’.
✔Understand the Action words and their three forms carefully.
✔There is no need to learn any text given here by heart
including Practice Material. Read it aloud not once, but several
times to let your organs of speech to acquire the speech habit.
1. Befriend with Speech Fluency Techniques
✔Grasp the idea of fundamental frames or structure style.
✔Understand the Parts of Speech, viz. Naming Part, Descriptive
Part, and Action Part.
✔Read the list of ‘Naming Frames’ and ‘Action Frames’ ALOUD.
✔Pick a Naming frame and conjugate it with different Action
frames ; and generate numerous idea-units.
25
✔Remember, substitution, i.e. conjugation of different Naming
Frames with different Action frames in various style is the
secret of speech generation.
1. Let Down Your Fluency Obstacles
✔Understand carefully all the four types of word–junctions, i.e.,
(a) Consonant–consonant junctions, (b) Consonant–vowel junctions, (c) Vowel–vowel junctions, and (d) Vowel-consonant junctions, and grasp their style of flowing into each other.
✔Master the gliding over at the word–junctions.
✔Take special care of the text given under heading ‘Things to
remember’.
✔Read the practice material given in the chapter ALOUD several
time.
1. Divide and Rule Your Speech
✔Divide your speech in chunks, wherever it is necessary.
✔A chunk is a piece of specific information.
✔A standard chunk shouldn’t contain more than eight words.
✔Grasp the Seven Tips given in the chapter for effective division
of utter able structure of word–group.
✔Try to speak out a standard chunk up to eight words within
three seconds.
1. Realize the Beauty of Pauses
✔Pauses are the part and parcel of spoken part of English.
✔Pauses are the best way to tackle your hesitation during the
conversation, and provide required opportunities to think over
26
subject–matter,
selection
of
words
or
word–groups,
construction, correction and editing of structure.
✔Pauses, particularly junction pauses, facilitate to relieve your
speech–organs from undue pressure thereon, and immune
your speech from faltering.
✔Hesitation is an essential phenomena of spoken English, and
no one can absolutely avoid it.
1. Speak in Rhythmic Fluency
✔Rhythm of Fluency depends upon the Rhythtech, i.e., a
predetermined order, and distinct up and down movements in
your speech.
✔Rhythtech works primarily with the help of some spare parts
like syllables—the word or the part of word uttered by a single
effort.
✔Rhythtech needs the proper arrangement of stressed and
unstressed syllables as well as the amount of time period
invested in utterance thereof.
✔The Rhythm–flow of speech is virtually a well constructed
chain of feet.
1. Control Your Speech Delivery
✔Speech initiators control your speech delivery efficiently.
✔Speech initiators are the group of words that are uttered at
the beginning of idea-units.
✔Speech initiators help you to develop effective Fluency
Nucleus.
1. Tag Your Speech with Short Responses
✔Short Response is a right source of complete conveyance of
your message, if it is applied as per the demand of context.
27
✔In comparison to other Indian languages, English has a variety
of Tags or Tag-questions, in contrasts to popular belief that the
Tags may be only like “isn’t it ?” or “is it ?”.
1. Secret of Successful Spontaneous Speech
✔Spontaneous speech making is an impromptu action, i.e.,
speech without planning, preparation and organization in advance, thus having uniqueness of makeshift improvisation— composition and speech of your idea-units simultaneously.
✔Spontaneous speech confers you the freedom of arranging
your speech in various styles like (a) Topic–comment order, (b)
Comment–topic order, (c) Repetition of References, etc.
✔It’s the spontaneous speech that provides you better chances
for (a) Self–correction, (b) Fronting, (c) Appendages, (d) Addition of Afterthoughts, (e) Use of fragments, etc., thus, you’ve the appreciable freedom of speech.
✔Comment clauses play the commendable role in composition
as well as correction in spontaneous speech.
✔The Hallmark of spoken English is imprecision and vagueness.
1. Beautify Your Speech with Drops
✔Though adding something makes your English effective, but
you can beautify your spoken English even by some drops too.
✔I-We-You-They-He-She-It; Am-Is-Are-Was-Were; Has-Have Had;
Shall-Will; A-An-The, and There, can be the extra bulge in your spoken English which requires to be shredded. It is the beauty of English that provides an opportunity to do so.
1. The Final Touch
✔Besides so many things, the knack of conversation, i.e.,
framing up of questions, plays an important role to gain
speech-fluency.
28
The Production Of Sound
Posted By. Moderators MusangPudak, Juny 2011
Vocal Sound Production
Diaphragm action pushes air from the lungs through the vocal folds , producing a periodic train of air pulses.This pulse train is shaped by the resonances of the vocal tract.The basic resonances, called vocal formants , can be changed by the action of the articulators to produce distinguishable voice sounds, like the vowel sounds .
Voice concepts
Musical instruments
Sound HyperPhysics
The Vocal Folds
Positioned at the base of the larynx in the vocal tract, these twin infoldings of mucous membrane act as the vibrator or "reed" during phonation.Open during breathing, the folds are closed by the pivoting of the arytenoid cartilages for speech.
Positive air pressure from the lungs forces them open momentarily, but the high velocity air produces a lowered pressure by the Bernoulli effect which brings them back together.The folds themselves have a resonant frequency of the which determines the pitch of voice.
In an adult male, the vocal folds are usually 17-23 mm long, and12.5 -17 mm in an adult female (Kaplan).They may be stretched 3 or 4 mm by action of the muscles in the larynx.
The male speaking voice averages about 125 Hz, while the female voice averages about 210 Hz.Children's voices average over 300 Hz. Children's voices averages over 300 Hz. The illustration below shows approximate pitches for speaking voices related to an equal tempered piano keyboard based on A 4 = 440 Hz.
The front end of the vocal folds is attached to the thyroid cartilage, the "Adam's apple".The back end is attached to the arytenoid cartilages, which move to separate the folds for breathing.
Voice concepts
Musical instruments
Vocal Folds in Phonation
The process of converting the air pressure from the lungs into audible vibrations is called phonation.When the air passes through the elastic vocal folds and causes them to vibrate, the type of phonation is called voicing.The vocal folds give the singer a wide range of control over the pitch of the sound produced.While "vocal folds" is more descriptive than "vocal cords", there is some similarity to a vibrating string in that the pitch produced depends upon the length, mass and tension of the vocal folds.
The excitation of the vocal folds is however very different from the excitation of a string in that is is caused by the passage of air through the opening between the folds. The muscles of the larynx change the elasticity and tension of the vocal folds to determine the pitch of the sound.
Voice concepts
Musical instruments
Vocal Fold Excitation
The vibratory cycle of the vocal folds is driven by aerodynamic phenomena. The vibratory cycle of the vocal folds is driven by aerodynamic phenomena. Driving air pressure from the lungs controls the opening of the folds, and the Bernoulli effect controls the closing phase. Driving the water pressure from the lungs controls the opening of the folds, and the Bernoulli effect controls the closing phase. As the top of the folds is opening, the bottom is in the process of closing, and as soon as the top is closed, the pressure buildup begins to open the bottom. As the top of the folds is opening, the bottom is in the process of closing, and as soon as the top is closed, the pressure buildup Begins to open the bottom. The vibration is then like a wave which travels from the bottom to the top of the vocal folds. The vibration is then like a wave the which travels from the bottom to the top of the vocal folds. Each vibration allows a brief puff of air to escape, producing an audible sound at the frequency of the opening; this process is called voicing. EACH vibration allows a brief puff of water to escape, producing an audible sound at the frequency of the opening; this process is Called voicing.
The voice intensity can be increased by increasing the air flow from the lungs and increasing the resistance from the vocal folds. The vocal folds are blown wider apart, and stay apart longer during the cycle.This increases the amplitude of the sound pressure wave produced.How about this for a "big word" description of the process:
myoelastic aerodynamic theory of phonation
Voice concepts
Musical instruments
HyperPhysics
Vocal Sound Production
Diaphragm action pushes air from the lungs through the vocal folds , producing a periodic train of air pulses.This pulse train is shaped by the resonances of the vocal tract.The basic resonances, called vocal formants , can be changed by the action of the articulators to produce distinguishable voice sounds, like the vowel sounds .
Voice concepts
Musical instruments
Sound HyperPhysics
The Vocal Folds
Positioned at the base of the larynx in the vocal tract, these twin infoldings of mucous membrane act as the vibrator or "reed" during phonation.Open during breathing, the folds are closed by the pivoting of the arytenoid cartilages for speech.
Positive air pressure from the lungs forces them open momentarily, but the high velocity air produces a lowered pressure by the Bernoulli effect which brings them back together.The folds themselves have a resonant frequency of the which determines the pitch of voice.
In an adult male, the vocal folds are usually 17-23 mm long, and12.5 -17 mm in an adult female (Kaplan).They may be stretched 3 or 4 mm by action of the muscles in the larynx.
The male speaking voice averages about 125 Hz, while the female voice averages about 210 Hz.Children's voices average over 300 Hz. Children's voices averages over 300 Hz. The illustration below shows approximate pitches for speaking voices related to an equal tempered piano keyboard based on A 4 = 440 Hz.
The front end of the vocal folds is attached to the thyroid cartilage, the "Adam's apple".The back end is attached to the arytenoid cartilages, which move to separate the folds for breathing.
Voice concepts
Musical instruments
Vocal Folds in Phonation
The process of converting the air pressure from the lungs into audible vibrations is called phonation.When the air passes through the elastic vocal folds and causes them to vibrate, the type of phonation is called voicing.The vocal folds give the singer a wide range of control over the pitch of the sound produced.While "vocal folds" is more descriptive than "vocal cords", there is some similarity to a vibrating string in that the pitch produced depends upon the length, mass and tension of the vocal folds.
The excitation of the vocal folds is however very different from the excitation of a string in that is is caused by the passage of air through the opening between the folds. The muscles of the larynx change the elasticity and tension of the vocal folds to determine the pitch of the sound.
Voice concepts
Musical instruments
Vocal Fold Excitation
The vibratory cycle of the vocal folds is driven by aerodynamic phenomena. The vibratory cycle of the vocal folds is driven by aerodynamic phenomena. Driving air pressure from the lungs controls the opening of the folds, and the Bernoulli effect controls the closing phase. Driving the water pressure from the lungs controls the opening of the folds, and the Bernoulli effect controls the closing phase. As the top of the folds is opening, the bottom is in the process of closing, and as soon as the top is closed, the pressure buildup begins to open the bottom. As the top of the folds is opening, the bottom is in the process of closing, and as soon as the top is closed, the pressure buildup Begins to open the bottom. The vibration is then like a wave which travels from the bottom to the top of the vocal folds. The vibration is then like a wave the which travels from the bottom to the top of the vocal folds. Each vibration allows a brief puff of air to escape, producing an audible sound at the frequency of the opening; this process is called voicing. EACH vibration allows a brief puff of water to escape, producing an audible sound at the frequency of the opening; this process is Called voicing.
The voice intensity can be increased by increasing the air flow from the lungs and increasing the resistance from the vocal folds. The vocal folds are blown wider apart, and stay apart longer during the cycle.This increases the amplitude of the sound pressure wave produced.How about this for a "big word" description of the process:
myoelastic aerodynamic theory of phonation
Voice concepts
Musical instruments
HyperPhysics
Rabu, 08 Juni 2011
Pengajaran Bahasa Inggris Bunyi
Pengajaran Bahasa Inggris bunyi
PENGAJARAN INDEX | KESALAHAN COMMON dalam pengucapan | NEXT
Prioritas untuk fonologi di kelas pengucapan
Berikut adalah beberapa kriteria utama:
Komprehensif: adalah pembelajar dapat mengidentifikasi suara dan artikulasi mereka dipahami oleh penutur asli?
Akseptabilitas Sosial: adalah pembelajar menghasilkan suara yang estetis diterima oleh telinga penutur asli?
Kemudahan Produksi: apakah peserta didik memiliki peluang bagus untuk berhasil belajar untuk menghasilkan suara?
Jumlah kata akrab (beban fungsional): melakukan suara sering terjadi pada penting & sangat berguna atau kata /?
Mungkin kebiasaan buruk yang mempengaruhi suara lain: kesalahan mendapatkan di jalan target penting lainnya?
frekuensi beban, Fungsional dan makna
Membingungkan / θ / dan / ð / jarang akan menyebabkan kesalahpahaman, tapi membingungkan / s / dan / θ /, / ð / atau / z / bisa. Hal ini mungkin mempengaruhi pelajar bahasa Inggris dari Perancis, Jerman, Italia, Cina, latar belakang bahasa Jepang atau Rusia. Penutur bahasa ini tidak memiliki fonem terpisah untuk ini suara konsonan bahasa Inggris kontras.
konsonan Perbedaannya mempengaruhi banyak kata bahasa Inggris umum, produksi sangat miskin dari suara-suara akan terlihat. Pengajaran harus fokus pada pengakuan dan produksi. Kesulitan produksi tidak boleh terlalu besar, karena bunyi konsonan di atas diproduksi pada bagian depan yaitu keterampilan motorik mulut ini tidak terlalu sulit untuk belajar.
Berapa banyak dan fonetik fonologi yang dimiliki guru dan pelajar bahasa Inggris perlu mengetahui dan menggunakan?
Bahasa adalah alat komunikasi. Perbedaan dalam sistem suara memiliki dasar fonologis: mereka bergantung pada variasi dalam posisi organ bicara atau kontrol nafas. Guru harus memahami aspek fisik produksi suara.
Guru tidak akan selalu mengajarkan ini kepada siswa, tapi pengetahuan ini akan memberikan dasar bagi guru untuk mengidentifikasi alasan fisik untuk perkiraan akurat suara bahasa asing, yang memungkinkan mereka untuk memberikan instruksi yang tepat yang akan membantu siswa mengoreksi pengucapan yang salah. Kecuali guru memahami bagaimana siswa menggunakan organ pidato mereka dalam menghasilkan bunyi bahasa asli dan apa yang mereka harus lakukan untuk mereproduksi suara bahasa asing dapat diterima, guru tidak akan dapat membantu siswa melampaui suatu tahap tertentu imitasi sungguh-sungguh tetapi tidak akurat. Salah konsonan diartikulasikan akan mempengaruhi produksi vokal, sebagai vokal akan mempengaruhi konsonan. Siswa itu membutuhkan latihan yang mantap dan pelatihan otot. Pengucapan adalah keterampilan motorik yang perlu latihan.
Fonologi pelajaran akan berpusat pada:
Mendengar: demonstrasi fisik. Diskriminasi latihan misalnya kapal atau domba? / ɪ / atau / i: /?
Suara vokal yang terjadi dalam: "itu", "bit", "makan", "cocok", "kaki", "kursi", "duduk"?
Produksi. Secara fisik membuat suara.
Memperluas konteks. Frase dan kalimat serta fonem antara konsonan tertutup.
PENGAJARAN INDEX | KESALAHAN COMMON dalam pengucapan | NEXT
Prioritas untuk fonologi di kelas pengucapan
Berikut adalah beberapa kriteria utama:
Komprehensif: adalah pembelajar dapat mengidentifikasi suara dan artikulasi mereka dipahami oleh penutur asli?
Akseptabilitas Sosial: adalah pembelajar menghasilkan suara yang estetis diterima oleh telinga penutur asli?
Kemudahan Produksi: apakah peserta didik memiliki peluang bagus untuk berhasil belajar untuk menghasilkan suara?
Jumlah kata akrab (beban fungsional): melakukan suara sering terjadi pada penting & sangat berguna atau kata /?
Mungkin kebiasaan buruk yang mempengaruhi suara lain: kesalahan mendapatkan di jalan target penting lainnya?
frekuensi beban, Fungsional dan makna
Membingungkan / θ / dan / ð / jarang akan menyebabkan kesalahpahaman, tapi membingungkan / s / dan / θ /, / ð / atau / z / bisa. Hal ini mungkin mempengaruhi pelajar bahasa Inggris dari Perancis, Jerman, Italia, Cina, latar belakang bahasa Jepang atau Rusia. Penutur bahasa ini tidak memiliki fonem terpisah untuk ini suara konsonan bahasa Inggris kontras.
konsonan Perbedaannya mempengaruhi banyak kata bahasa Inggris umum, produksi sangat miskin dari suara-suara akan terlihat. Pengajaran harus fokus pada pengakuan dan produksi. Kesulitan produksi tidak boleh terlalu besar, karena bunyi konsonan di atas diproduksi pada bagian depan yaitu keterampilan motorik mulut ini tidak terlalu sulit untuk belajar.
Berapa banyak dan fonetik fonologi yang dimiliki guru dan pelajar bahasa Inggris perlu mengetahui dan menggunakan?
Bahasa adalah alat komunikasi. Perbedaan dalam sistem suara memiliki dasar fonologis: mereka bergantung pada variasi dalam posisi organ bicara atau kontrol nafas. Guru harus memahami aspek fisik produksi suara.
Guru tidak akan selalu mengajarkan ini kepada siswa, tapi pengetahuan ini akan memberikan dasar bagi guru untuk mengidentifikasi alasan fisik untuk perkiraan akurat suara bahasa asing, yang memungkinkan mereka untuk memberikan instruksi yang tepat yang akan membantu siswa mengoreksi pengucapan yang salah. Kecuali guru memahami bagaimana siswa menggunakan organ pidato mereka dalam menghasilkan bunyi bahasa asli dan apa yang mereka harus lakukan untuk mereproduksi suara bahasa asing dapat diterima, guru tidak akan dapat membantu siswa melampaui suatu tahap tertentu imitasi sungguh-sungguh tetapi tidak akurat. Salah konsonan diartikulasikan akan mempengaruhi produksi vokal, sebagai vokal akan mempengaruhi konsonan. Siswa itu membutuhkan latihan yang mantap dan pelatihan otot. Pengucapan adalah keterampilan motorik yang perlu latihan.
Fonologi pelajaran akan berpusat pada:
Mendengar: demonstrasi fisik. Diskriminasi latihan misalnya kapal atau domba? / ɪ / atau / i: /?
Suara vokal yang terjadi dalam: "itu", "bit", "makan", "cocok", "kaki", "kursi", "duduk"?
Produksi. Secara fisik membuat suara.
Memperluas konteks. Frase dan kalimat serta fonem antara konsonan tertutup.
Understanding Research Description
I. Pengertian Penelitian Deskripsi
Penelitian deskriptif adalah suatu bentuk penelitian yang ditujukan untuk mendeskripsikan fenomena-fenomena yang ada, baik fenomena alamiah maupun fenomena buatan manusia. Fenomena itu bisa berupa bentuk, aktivitas, karakteristik, perubahan, hubungan, kesamaan, dan perbedaan antara fenomena yang satu dengan fenomena lainnya (Sukmadinata, 2006:72). Penelitian deskriptif merupakan penelitian yang berusaha mendeskripsikan dan menginterpretasikan sesuatu, misalnyakondisi atau hubungan yang ada, pendapat yang berkembang, proses yang sedang berlangsung, akibat atau efek yang terjadi, atau tentang kecendrungan yang tengah berlangsung.
Furchan (2004:447) menjelaskan bahwa penelitian deskriptif adalah penelitian yang dirancang untuk memperoleh informasi tentang status suatu gejala saat penelitian dilakukan. Lebih lanjut dijelaskan, dalam penelitian deskriptif tidak ada perlakuan yang diberikan atau dikendalikan serta tidak ada uji hipotesis sebagaimana yang terdapat pada penelitian eksperiman.
Karakteristik Penelitian Deskriptif
Penelitian deskriptif mempunyai karakteristik-karakteristik seperti yang dikemukakan Furchan (2004) bahwa (1) penelitian deskriptif cendrung menggambarkan suatu fenomena apa adanya dengan cara menelaah secara teratur-ketat, mengutamakan obyektivitas, dan dilakukan secara cermat. (2) tidak adanya perlakuan yang diberikan atau dikendalikan, dan (3) tidak adanya uji hipotesis.
III. Jenis-jenis Penelitian Deskriptif
Furchan (2004:448-465) menjelaskan, beberapa jenis penelitian deskriptif, yaitu; (1) Studi kasus, yaitu, suatu penyelidikan intensif tentang individu, dan atau unit sosial yang dilakukan secara mendalam dengan menemukan semua variabel penting tentang perkembangan individu atau unit sosial yang diteliti. Dalam penelitian ini dimungkinkan ditemukannya hal-hal tak terduga kemudian dapat digunakan untuk membuat hipotesis. (2) Survei. Studi jenis ini merupakan studi pengumpulan data yang relatif terbatas dari kasus-kasus yang relatif besar jumlahnya. Tujuannya adalah untuk mengumpulkan informasi tentang variabel dan bukan tentang individu. Berdasarkan ruang lingkupnya (sensus atau survai sampel) dan subyeknya (hal nyata atau tidak nyata), sensus dapat dikelompokkan menjadi beberapa kategori, yaitu: sensus tentang hal-hal yang nyata, sensus tentang hal-hal yang tidak nyata, survei sampel tentang hal-hal yang nyata, dan survei sampel tentang hal-hal yang tidak nyata. (3) Studi perkembangan. Studi ini merupakan penelitian yang dilakukan untuk memperoleh informasi yang dapat dipercaya bagaimana sifat-sifat anak pada berbagai usia, bagaimana perbedaan mereka dalam tingkatan-tingkatan usia itu, serta bagaimana mereka tumbuh dan berkembang. Hal ini biasanya dilakukan dengan metode longitudinal dan metode cross-sectional. (4) Studi tindak lanjut, yakni, studi yang menyelidiki perkembangan subyek setelah diberi perlakukan atau kondisi tertentu atau mengalami kondisi tertentu. (5) Analisis dokumenter. Studi ini sering juga disebut analisi isi yang juga dapat digunakan untuk menyelidiki variabel sosiologis dan psikologis. (6) Analisis kecenderungan. Yakni, analisis yang dugunakan untuk meramalkan keadaan di masa yang akan datang dengan memperhatikan kecenderungan-kecenderungan yang terjadi. (7) Studi korelasi. Yaitu, jenis penelitian deskriptif yang bertujuan menetapkan besarnya hubungan antar variabel yang diteliti.
Ditulis dalam fariabel, fenomena, jenis-jenis penelitian deskripsi, penelitian deskriptif, penelitian eksperiman, survei, uji hipotesis | Kaitkata: fariabel, fenomena, jenis-jenis penelitian deskripsi, penelitian deskriptif, penelitian eksperiman, survei, uji hipotesis
« Trik Agar Dapat Diterima Kerja
PENELITIAN EKSPERIMEN »
How Can I Improve My English Easily
Posted by.Moderator MusangPudak
How Can I Improve My English Easily?
By Leyla Norman, eHow Contributor
updated October 11, 2010
?
How Can I Improve My English Easily?thumbnail Join an online language exchange to improve English communication skills.
English is the most commonly-used language for international business, trade and other international exchanges. According to the British Council, "English is spoken as a first language by around 375 million and as a second language by around 375 million speakers in the world."
Spend as much time as you can listening to and speaking in English to improve your conversational skills. Read and write in English to help improve your grammar and sentence construction as well as your vocabulary. It is not necessarily easy to improve your English, but if you make it a part of your daily habit and practice it during your regular daily activities, you will find it easier to do than if you only studied out of a book.
Difficulty:
Moderately Challenging
Instructions
1
Listen to and read different types of English media. For example, listen to a disc jockey in the morning on the radio and a news story from National Public Radio on your way home from work. Read out of a trade journal one day and read a children's book the next. Watch television shows and movies in English. Short clips of documentaries, sitcoms and movies can be found on YouTube and on Hulu. Try to watch films without subtitles in your native language or in English.
2
Talk in English as much as possible. Even if you do not speak to a native English speaker all of the time, listening to yourself speak in English will help you identify common mistakes you make in word choice and grammar. Practice writing every day. Write a letter or a short paragraph about your day, for example.
3
Join an online language exchange such as My Language Exchange or Lingo Pass. Meet online with English speakers via voice and text chat. In language exchange programs, you will teach the English speaker your language in exchange for help learning English. Ask your partner to correct grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. Meet regularly.
4
Attend English-as-a-second-language classes. Local religious organizations or school districts' adult education centers usually offer English classes. Another option is to hire a private tutor to help you improve in specific areas. Join other English students in small online classes offered by English tutoring companies.
Spoken Englishwww.valuepointacademy.com
English Courses on various levels Accomodation can be arranged
Read more: How Can I Improve My English Easily? | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_7318316_can-improve-english-easily_.html#ixzz1OflEgDyU
How Can I Improve My English Easily?
By Leyla Norman, eHow Contributor
updated October 11, 2010
?
How Can I Improve My English Easily?thumbnail Join an online language exchange to improve English communication skills.
English is the most commonly-used language for international business, trade and other international exchanges. According to the British Council, "English is spoken as a first language by around 375 million and as a second language by around 375 million speakers in the world."
Spend as much time as you can listening to and speaking in English to improve your conversational skills. Read and write in English to help improve your grammar and sentence construction as well as your vocabulary. It is not necessarily easy to improve your English, but if you make it a part of your daily habit and practice it during your regular daily activities, you will find it easier to do than if you only studied out of a book.
Difficulty:
Moderately Challenging
Instructions
1
Listen to and read different types of English media. For example, listen to a disc jockey in the morning on the radio and a news story from National Public Radio on your way home from work. Read out of a trade journal one day and read a children's book the next. Watch television shows and movies in English. Short clips of documentaries, sitcoms and movies can be found on YouTube and on Hulu. Try to watch films without subtitles in your native language or in English.
2
Talk in English as much as possible. Even if you do not speak to a native English speaker all of the time, listening to yourself speak in English will help you identify common mistakes you make in word choice and grammar. Practice writing every day. Write a letter or a short paragraph about your day, for example.
3
Join an online language exchange such as My Language Exchange or Lingo Pass. Meet online with English speakers via voice and text chat. In language exchange programs, you will teach the English speaker your language in exchange for help learning English. Ask your partner to correct grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. Meet regularly.
4
Attend English-as-a-second-language classes. Local religious organizations or school districts' adult education centers usually offer English classes. Another option is to hire a private tutor to help you improve in specific areas. Join other English students in small online classes offered by English tutoring companies.
Spoken Englishwww.valuepointacademy.com
English Courses on various levels Accomodation can be arranged
Read more: How Can I Improve My English Easily? | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_7318316_can-improve-english-easily_.html#ixzz1OflEgDyU
ALTERNATIF PENGEMBANGAN ISI LITERATURE REVIEW
Posted by Ridha Voice Leader MusangPudak
LITERATURE REVIEW atau Tinjauan Pustaka memiliki 2 fungsi utama, baik secara umum maupun secara khusus. Fungsi umumnya bertujuan memberi kejelasan RUANG LINGKUP masalah yang dikaji melalui pemaparan disertai analisis teori dan atau hasil penelitian yang relevan, sedangkan fungsi khususnya bertujuan memberi JAWABAN SEMENTARA (kebenaran secara teoritis) terhadap RUMUSAN MASALAH berdasarkan simpulan hasil dari pemaparan dan analisis dimaksud (paragraf akhir). Alternatif pengembangan isinya dapat dilakukan secara kronologis atau disusun (dirunut) berdasarkan tahun keluaran daripada teori dan atau hasil penelitian yang dikutip (dari tahun keluaran yang lama ke yang baru), dengan tujuan untuk mengidentifikasi jika terdapat PERKEMBANGAN teori disetiap tahun keluarannya sesuai dengan masalah yang dikaji. Teori dan atau hasil penelitian yang memiliki substansi yang sama dapat ditempatkan pada paragraf yang sama, sedangkan yang berbeda ditempatkan pada paragraf yang berbeda. Tidak ada batasan jumlah halaman, namun idealnya, teori dan atau hasil penelitian yang dikutip dan dianalisis, secara substantif bersifat representatif (mewakili) dari keseluruhan teori dan atau hasil penelitian sebelumnya.
REVIEW PEMILIHAN MASALAH
Penelitian berangkat dari masalah bukan dari judul. Judul hanya berperan sebagai representasi dari pokok masalah yang dikaji dalam suatu penelitian. Ia dapat dirumuskan diawal dan bisa juga diakhir. Jika ia dirumuskan diawal, ia dapat berfungsi sebagai "alat" untuk membantu peneliti dalam mengkerangkakan dan atau memfokuskan pemaparan masalah, dan jika ia dirumuskan diakhir (revisi), ia dapat berfungsi sebagai representasi sebagaimana dimaksud. Pada awalnya, merumuskan masalah penelitian memang bukanlah hal yang mudah, terutama bagi orang yang baru melakukan penelitian. Hal yang perlu diingat adalah masalah merupakan kesenjangan yang terjadi antara teori dengan praktek atau antara harapan dengan kenyataan. Dengan kata lain, seseorang yang ingin mendapatkan suatu masalah tentulah orang yang memiliki latar belakang ilmu pengetahuan, keterampilan, dan pengalaman yang memadai agar ia dapat menilai apakah dalam implementasi, contoh, suatu ilmu dan keterampilan seseorang atau sekelompok orang di suatu lokasi telah terjadi suatu masalah (kesenjangan antara teori dengan praktek atau antara harapan dengan kenyataan dimaksud). Untuk mengetahui dan atau memastikan apakah di lokasi tersebut telah terjadi masalah dan secara teoritis-praktis dapat diteliti, tentu seorang peneliti harus melakukan studi, baik secara literatur mapun terjun ke lapangan (studi pendahuluan)
STRUKTUR ALTERNATIF PENGEMBANGAN ISI PENDAHULUAN
Esensi dari bagian pendahuluan adalah pemaparan argumen, baik secara teoritis maupun praktis, yang melatarbelakangi suatu masalah hingga dinilai layak untuk ditindaklanjuti dalam suatu penelitian. Struktur pendahuluan dapat dianalogikan seperti kerucut terbalik dimana bagian awal dimulai dengan menyajikan informasi yang bersifat umum dalam ruang lingkup masalah yang diteliti dan diakhiri dengan informasi yang bersifat spesifik. Alternatifnya, struktur dimaksud dapat dibagi menjadi 4 bagian utama, yaitu: (1) penjelasan masalah yang diteliti beserta dengan ruang lingkupnya (2) pemaparan kondisi ideal > teori dan atau hasil penelitian sebelumnya yang terkait dgn masalah tersebut (3) perbandingan kondisi ideal dimaksud dgn temuan praktis di lapangan > kesenjangan (4) penekanan akan pentingnya implementasi penelitian
LITERATURE REVIEW atau Tinjauan Pustaka memiliki 2 fungsi utama, baik secara umum maupun secara khusus. Fungsi umumnya bertujuan memberi kejelasan RUANG LINGKUP masalah yang dikaji melalui pemaparan disertai analisis teori dan atau hasil penelitian yang relevan, sedangkan fungsi khususnya bertujuan memberi JAWABAN SEMENTARA (kebenaran secara teoritis) terhadap RUMUSAN MASALAH berdasarkan simpulan hasil dari pemaparan dan analisis dimaksud (paragraf akhir). Alternatif pengembangan isinya dapat dilakukan secara kronologis atau disusun (dirunut) berdasarkan tahun keluaran daripada teori dan atau hasil penelitian yang dikutip (dari tahun keluaran yang lama ke yang baru), dengan tujuan untuk mengidentifikasi jika terdapat PERKEMBANGAN teori disetiap tahun keluarannya sesuai dengan masalah yang dikaji. Teori dan atau hasil penelitian yang memiliki substansi yang sama dapat ditempatkan pada paragraf yang sama, sedangkan yang berbeda ditempatkan pada paragraf yang berbeda. Tidak ada batasan jumlah halaman, namun idealnya, teori dan atau hasil penelitian yang dikutip dan dianalisis, secara substantif bersifat representatif (mewakili) dari keseluruhan teori dan atau hasil penelitian sebelumnya.
REVIEW PEMILIHAN MASALAH
Penelitian berangkat dari masalah bukan dari judul. Judul hanya berperan sebagai representasi dari pokok masalah yang dikaji dalam suatu penelitian. Ia dapat dirumuskan diawal dan bisa juga diakhir. Jika ia dirumuskan diawal, ia dapat berfungsi sebagai "alat" untuk membantu peneliti dalam mengkerangkakan dan atau memfokuskan pemaparan masalah, dan jika ia dirumuskan diakhir (revisi), ia dapat berfungsi sebagai representasi sebagaimana dimaksud. Pada awalnya, merumuskan masalah penelitian memang bukanlah hal yang mudah, terutama bagi orang yang baru melakukan penelitian. Hal yang perlu diingat adalah masalah merupakan kesenjangan yang terjadi antara teori dengan praktek atau antara harapan dengan kenyataan. Dengan kata lain, seseorang yang ingin mendapatkan suatu masalah tentulah orang yang memiliki latar belakang ilmu pengetahuan, keterampilan, dan pengalaman yang memadai agar ia dapat menilai apakah dalam implementasi, contoh, suatu ilmu dan keterampilan seseorang atau sekelompok orang di suatu lokasi telah terjadi suatu masalah (kesenjangan antara teori dengan praktek atau antara harapan dengan kenyataan dimaksud). Untuk mengetahui dan atau memastikan apakah di lokasi tersebut telah terjadi masalah dan secara teoritis-praktis dapat diteliti, tentu seorang peneliti harus melakukan studi, baik secara literatur mapun terjun ke lapangan (studi pendahuluan)
STRUKTUR ALTERNATIF PENGEMBANGAN ISI PENDAHULUAN
Esensi dari bagian pendahuluan adalah pemaparan argumen, baik secara teoritis maupun praktis, yang melatarbelakangi suatu masalah hingga dinilai layak untuk ditindaklanjuti dalam suatu penelitian. Struktur pendahuluan dapat dianalogikan seperti kerucut terbalik dimana bagian awal dimulai dengan menyajikan informasi yang bersifat umum dalam ruang lingkup masalah yang diteliti dan diakhiri dengan informasi yang bersifat spesifik. Alternatifnya, struktur dimaksud dapat dibagi menjadi 4 bagian utama, yaitu: (1) penjelasan masalah yang diteliti beserta dengan ruang lingkupnya (2) pemaparan kondisi ideal > teori dan atau hasil penelitian sebelumnya yang terkait dgn masalah tersebut (3) perbandingan kondisi ideal dimaksud dgn temuan praktis di lapangan > kesenjangan (4) penekanan akan pentingnya implementasi penelitian
Langganan:
Postingan (Atom)